Using the IRC n-Tiered model to generate numeric solutions for possible leptons
Aran David Stubbs, Infra-matter Research Center
Abstract
Our model has 3 tiers below leptons and quarks: proto-matter, mezzo-matter, and infra-matter. Each has characteristic tachyons binding together the lower level structures to produce the higher level. Each class of tachyon generates its own granularity constant. The proto-matter is bound by gravitons to form the leptons and quarks. The mezzo-matter is bound by mezzo-tachyons to form the proto-matter. The infra-matter is bound by infra-tachyons to form the mezzo-matter. 2 types of mezzo tachyons bind the mezzo-matter structures: a charge tachyon binding s mezzo-matter (with l=0), and a color tachyon binding structures with l>0. The s structure has 1 infra-tachyon and 1 infra-photon, in 1s orbits. The p structure has 7 of each: among 4 s sub-shells and 1 p. The d structure has 11 s sub-shells, 3 p, and 1 d. Etc. Based on the first 2 leptons, a solution for the energy of the s (charge) structure, and the p (color) structure were deduced, from which the other mezzo structures energies were generated. From the mezzo matter energy content, and a pattern of orbits at the proto-matter level, energies for the next few leptons were found (to 4 sig figs): 140.3 MeV, 826.6 MeV, 1777 MeV, and 4688 MeV.
Assumptions
- All Tardyons (any object moving slower than the speed of light) are structures, and all structures are tardyons. Structure as used here means anything that can be treated as a unit, but that has constituents.
- The fundamental forces of electro-magnetism, gravity, and the strong force are the result of wave on wave refraction. This slows the wave causing an attraction for the tardyons, and a repulsion for the tachyons.
- Tachyons become trapped in structures when Lv>λ. The Lv in question is the length from the tachyon’s perspective of the orbiting tardyons with Lv ~L0 V/c.
- Centripetal force is 2Ek/r for all types. Where V is small, this reduces to mV2/r.
- The granularity constant h relates the total energy of a photon to its frequency. The standard form E=hν only applies for the photon. The individual pieces follow a more general law E=hc/λP*, where λ is the wavelength, and P* is the number of energy equivalent pieces in a photon (12). This E is the kinetic energy. This form holds for the immediate constituents of each of the elementary particles. Similarly, angular momentum comes in quanta of
. - This granularity constant is generated by the gravitons within the structure.
- Other granularity constants are generated by other tachyons.
- Kepler’s laws are only applicable in a Newtonian framework. Where V is large, a more general form using energy is required. For an electron in isolation near a charge, the stable 1s orbit occurs where r = a0/z, where z is the ratio of the charge on the structure to the charge on a proton,
a0 is Bohr’s radius, and r is the distance between the centers of mass of the structure and the electron. The Kinetic Energy of the orbits of the charged structure and the electron total z2E1 where E1 is the energy for z=1. Velocity is derived, not proportionate to z. For many cases z is a net charge, often symbolized as z*. - The infra-matter luxons in s orbits are synchronized to the gravitons, having 1 orbital cycle in the time a graviton has Þ (a rational >3).
- The electrons have eccentric orbits, aside from the s, with focal length f proportionate to l number. P (l=1) has f of 1s radius /√2 so 2p has
eccentricity e of √2/4, 3p has e of √2/6, etc. D (l=2) has twice the focal length of P, so 3d has e of √2/3. Similarly, the proto-matter and infra-matter have orbits with eccentricity of
.
Introduction
The IRC model has multiple layers of structure for all the “fundamental” sub-atomic particles, including the quarks, photon, and leptons. Each contains proto-matter trapping gravitons. The proto-matter in turn are each structures, comprised either of mezzo-matter or of infra-matter. Mezzo-matter structures trap mezzo tachyons forming proto-matter, and are comprised of infra-matter. Infra-matter is treated as final: not a structure, but a luxon with no rest energy. Infra-matter traps infra-tachyons forming mezzo-matter, or in a few cases proto-matter.
The proto-matter can be described as members of 3 classes: proto-bosons, proto-quarks, and proto-leptons. The proto-bosons (proto-photons and proto-gluons) are attracted to structures with net charge and net color respectively. Proto-photons can also form particles without other proto-matter, either cancelling out their angular momentum to form photons, or with residual angular momentum forming neutrinos. Proto-bosons are comprised directly of infra-matter trapping infra-tachyons.
Proto-quarks have net charge (either 1 or 2 units), and net color (1 unit). They have been arbitrarily defined as normal matter and anti-matter in keeping with historic usage: those with color of red, blue, or green are normal matter, the other 3 colors are anti-matter. Proto-quarks routinely are found clumped together, forming structures containing 2 or more proto-quarks. The simplest contain 2 quarks in a single circular structure with a normal matter and an anti-matter proto-quark sharing s orbits above a pair of 1s gravitons. These diquarks are the scalar mesons. Alternately, 2 adjacent ellipsoidal structures can form, each containing 1 or 2 proto-quarks above a pair of gravitons, and a proto-gluon above another pair of gravitons,
in elliptical orbits perpendicular to the circular s orbits the proto-quarks occupy. If a structure has net charge, there are 3|z| proto-photons in circular s orbits around the structure. A charged diquark, such as a pi+ would have the 3 proto-photons in the same ring of orbits as the proto-quarks, typically 3s and 4s. A charged mono-quark pair or a charged mono-quark diquark combination would have an additional ring containing a pair of gravitons and
3|z| proto-photons. These combinations of monoquarks and diquarks can further clump together, as in the atomic nuclei. A third form is possible, with a trio of proto-quarks in circular orbit above a pair of gravitons. These tri-quarks can be neutral or charged. We are naming them “negrons” or dark matter particles. The lightest should be about 127 MeV. A pair of monoquarks clinging together are the vector mesons, while a monoquark clinging to a diquark form the baryons. The delta may be a trio of monoquarks clinging together, or an up/up diquark clinging to either an up or down for the + and ++ cases, or a down/down diquark clinging to either an up or a down for the 0 and – cases.
In contrast with the proto-quarks, the proto-leptons have 3 units of charge, no net color, and form single circle structures that move independently. They may orbit other charged structures, but are discreet from them and easily detached (requiring at most .26 MeV).
Energy is distributed among the orbits with an ns orbit having n times the energy of a 1s orbit. The average energy of a particle in an eccentric orbit can be approximated by velocity averaging the energy at the high and low points. Adding up the energy for the constituents gives an energy equivalent piece count or P*. If all the involved orbits are s, this is an integer. For example the photon has 6 pieces occupying the 1s, 2s, and 3s orbits. The energy equivalent piece count is 12, so the gravitons in the 1s orbits have 1/12th the total energy of the photon.
Mezzo Matter
As with any simple series, there are in theory an infinite number of mezzo matter structures possible. In practice, only a few of them are required. It was found that mezzo matter forms simple structures for each possible value of l. The l=0 structure is associated with charge tachyons. It has a single infra-photon trapping an infra-tachyon, each in 1s orbits about 10-60 m in diameter. These orbits are circular and lay on the x/y plain. The charge tachyons are trapped in orbits about 10-35 m in diameter. They are orbiting at around 1025 c, and produce 7/3 small units of angular momentum, where a small unit is. As with the contents of the charge or s mezzo-matter structures the charge tachyons have circular orbits on the x/y plain. Their frequency is on the order of 1068 cycles per second. As with any low-energy tachyon, the frequency is only weakly a function of energy, with 
where 
. Since energy and velocity are inversely related, angular momentum for an ns tachyon is independent of n, being purely a function of r: E|n=nE|1, 
.
For l=1, the p or color mezzo-matter structure has 4 s sub-shells, and 1 p sub-shell. Each is ½ infra-photons and ½ infra-tachyons. The orbits are about 10-62 m in diameter, with the p orbits elliptical with a maximum diameter √2 * the minimum diameter. The structures trap color tachyons in elliptical orbits perpendicular to the x/y plain, in one of the three color or p plains. The color tachyons have orbits similar in radius to the corresponding s orbits occupied by the charge tachyons. As the 3 vectors of angular momentum within the p structure are 60° apart, they add to net color (a trivial amount as compared to the color tachyons contribution). That means there are 6 variants on the color mezzo-matter structure. Similarly, the color tachyons have 3 vectors of angular momentum that can add in two stable ways: either 120° apart, producing 0 net angular momentum when all three are maximal simultaneously, or 60° apart producing constant net angular momentum twice the average amount when the central vector is at its maximum when the 2 outer vectors are at their minimum.
For l=2, the d mezzo-matter structure has 11 s sub-shells, 3 p sub-shells, and 1 d sub-shell. As with all l>0 cases, the highest l orbit is in the plane of the color tachyon it traps. d defines 5 planes, while f defines 7, g 9, etc. For l=3, the f mezzo-matter structure has 22 s sub-shells, 7 p sub-shells, 3 d sub-shells, and 1 f sub-shell.
With l=4, the g has 37 s sub-shells, 12 p sub-shells, 6 d sub-shells, 3 f sub-shells, and 1 g sub-shell. There is again the possibility of net angular momentum lacking in the d and f cases. There are then potentially 18 flavors of the structure, with trivial angular momentum in any of the relevant directions along the x/y plain. Since the p or color structure has a simpler structure, and aligns on 3 of the 9 plains, it is assumed the filled subshell within the proto-matter contains 9 color tachyons, 6 g mezzo structures, and 3 p mezzo structures. If this is in error the middle and top proto-quarks are heavier than projected. Similarly, the 9 color tachyons can form 3 sets of 3 either 60° or 120° apart. This gives 3 independent vectors with 7 possible values, or 343 total “hues”.
Analysis was done through l=22, but that is just silly. Cases with l=3m+1 (where m is a positive integer) have hue, with 72m+1 variants.
The following summarizes the relevant Mezzo-matter structures:
|
l |
s |
Name |
RE/bit (MeV) |
|
0 |
1 |
s |
0.010298491 |
|
1 |
4 |
p |
5.827058961 |
|
2 |
11 |
d |
42.76491689 |
|
3 |
22 |
f |
184.9534710 |
|
4 |
37 |
g |
549.3242684 |
|
5 |
56 |
h |
1293.188076 |
|
6 |
79 |
i |
2681.970947 |
|
7 |
106 |
j |
5020.313483 |
|
8 |
137 |
k |
8599.588051 |
|
9 |
172 |
l |
13,944.75884 |
|
10 |
211 |
m |
21,565.32136 |
|
11 |
254 |
n |
31,566.53609 |
|
12 |
301 |
o |
45,288.37989 |
|
13 |
352 |
q |
62,967.10472 |
|
14 |
407 |
r |
85,455.60517 |
|
15 |
466 |
t |
113,767.0686 |
|
16 |
529 |
u |
148,362.9023 |
|
17 |
596 |
v |
190,886.1597 |
|
18 |
667 |
w |
241,586.1990 |
|
19 |
742 |
x |
302,380.0282 |
|
20 |
821 |
y |
374,223.8960 |
|
21 |
904 |
z |
458,777.3731 |
|
22 |
991 |
a |
556,597.4937 |
Proto-Matter
Just as the mezzo-matter has structures with a series of sub-shells, the proto-matter structures have a parallel set of sub-shells. In most cases the sub-shells contain mezzo-matter, but in 2 special cases they contain infra-matter. These are the proto-photon, which looks like an s mezzo-matter structure, and the proto-gluon which looks like a p mezzo-matter structure. Since net angular momentum can’t occur at d or f, no proto-matter resembling those structures is expected, but additional proto-matter resembling the g, j, m, etc. mezzo-matter should also occur. Proto-matter containing infra-matter clings to structures with angular momentum opposing them. Thus the proto-photon with trivial angular momentum in the charge direction clings to charged structures with opposing charge. Proto-gluons with trivial amounts of color in 1 of the 6 color directions cling to structures with the opposing color.
Most proto-matter is comprised of mezzo-matter and mezzo-tachyons. The variety of mezzo-tachyon relates to the variety of mezzo-matter, with the charge tachyon only trapped by the charge structure, while the color tachyon is trapped by any of the other mezzo-matter structures (including the p or color structure).
As with the mezzo-matter, the order of orbit filling follows a simple progression: the first p sub-shell 1p fills after the third s, about the same time as the fourth s. Unlike the electron orbits, in the proto-matter and mezzo matter structures, n=l is a valid case. The first d sub-shell, 2d, fills between 10s and 11s. The first f sub-shell, 3f, fills between 21s and 22s. 4g after 36s, 5h after 55s, etc.. In each case, the third sub-shell for a lower l fills shortly before the first of the next l out.
Aside from the special cases where infra-matter is involved, all of the other proto-matter falls into 2 families: proto-quarks and proto-leptons. Proto-quarks have either 1 or 2 full sub-shells at the highest l level, and the s sub-shell just beyond. Proto-leptons have 1 fewer s sub-shell if the corresponding proto-quark has an even number of s sub-shells; and 2 fewer if the proto-quark has an even number of s sub-shells. In each case, an odd number of sub-shells corresponds to an odd amount of charge 1/3 or 3/3, and an even number of sub-shells corresponds to an even charge of 2/3. Proto-quarks have charges of 1/3 or 2/3, while proto-leptons have a charge of 3/3. Each of the proto-quarks examined to date have 1 net unit of color, and each proto-lepton has 0 net units of color. Other than the proto-up, the proto-quarks have the capability to have 2 or more units of color, but that has not been reported.
The following summarizes the relevant kinds of proto-matter:
|
Highest |
Name |
Bottom |
Top |
% |
|
1 |
p-Lepton |
0.01411493 |
||
|
2 |
p-Quark |
0.03012771 |
||
|
3 |
p-Electron |
0.04820745 |
0.04820745 |
NA |
|
4 |
p-Up |
17.96143 |
17.96143 |
NA |
|
5 |
p-Muon |
17.98440 |
17.98440 |
NA |
|
7 |
p-Down |
36.53400 |
36.53400 |
NA |
|
9 |
p-Lepton |
36.59463 |
||
|
11 |
p-Strange |
270.5712 |
270.7225 |
0.056% |
|
15 |
p-Lepton |
290.1727 |
||
|
16 |
p-Charm |
526.0174 |
525.873 |
0.027% |
|
21 |
p-Tauon |
763.3565 |
763.2181 |
0.018% |
|
22 |
p-Quark |
2081.021 |
2080.57 |
0.022% |
|
27 |
p-Lepton |
2320.103 |
||
|
29 |
p-Bottom |
3640.132 |
||
|
35 |
p-Lepton |
3903.593 |
||
|
37 |
p-Quark |
8762.298 |
||
|
45 |
p-Lepton |
10,330.85 |
||
|
46 |
p-Top |
13,894.72 |
Top down energy is calculated from the relevant elementary particles: known leptons and scalar mesons. As the proto-electron and proto-muon were used as a basis for all other calculations, there is no error calculation possible. Proto-up energy was calculated from the calculated energy of the relevant 5s sub-shell which is the only difference in energy between a proto-up and a proto-muon. Proto-down was calculated from the reported energy of the neutral pion, and the previously calculated energy of the proto-up. Bottom up calculations were down to include those 4 data points.
Leptons
The proto-leptons form structures trapping pairs of gravitons, and attracting trios of proto-photons. The 6 piece resulting structure is a ring on the x/y plain. All reported charged leptons have net angular momentum of 6 small units. As charge results in 7 small units, there is a net angular momentum on a structural level of 1 unit aligned opposite that of the charge. In each case the gravitons are in 1s orbits.
It was determined that an ns proto-photon has ±n small units of angular momentum. The sign depends on the orientation of the proto-photon. A formula was found that calculates the velocity of a ns proto-matter piece with m extra units of angular momentum. As the proto-lepton has significant rest energy, it can’t move at or very near c. The formula is in terms of a and b where the velocity is 
. Then b=a+m, 
. The first
proto-lepton, the proto-electron, is in a 2s orbit with 3 small units of angular momentum, so 
.
At that velocity, for every 5 units of rest energy there are 8 units of kinetic energy. The energy equivalent piece total for the electron or P* is 12, with 2 1s gravitons, 2 3s proto-photons, a 2s proto-electron, and a 2s proto-photon. For s orbits the piece equivalent energy is just the sum of the n values for each piece. As a 2s orbit is 8 units of kinetic energy, the total kinetic energy of the proto-matter in the electron is 48 units, so the total energy of the electron is 53 units, with the proto-electron having rest energy at that level of organization of 
. That is, about 48.207445 KeV.
The second proto-lepton, the proto-muon, is in a +3s orbit paired to a -4s proto-photon. P* = 13. Velocity is 
. Rest energy of the proto-muon is 17.984404 MeV. The third proto-lepton is in a +4s orbit, paired to a -7s proto-photon. P* = 17. Velocity is 
. The fourth proto-lepton is in a +5s orbit paired to a -11s proto-photon. P* = 22. Velocity is 
. The fifth proto-lepton is in a +6s orbit in the tauon, paired to a -16s proto-photon. P* = 28. Velocity is 
. The sixth proto-lepton is in a +7s orbit, paired to a -22s proto-photon. P* = 35. Velocity is 
.
As with any infinite series, a zeroeth element can be calculated. This is not likely to have a physical reality. The zeroeth proto-quark has 2 s sub-shells of mezzo-matter, and the zeroeth proto-lepton has 1. The zeroeth proto-lepton would occupy a 1s orbit, paired to a 1s proto-photon, with the 2 graviton in 2s orbits, and no additional proto-photons. P* = 6, Velocity is .
The following summarizes information about the charged leptons:
|
Number |
Name |
Rest E (MeV) Theory |
Rest E (MeV) |
Proto-RE |
P* |
1s Proto-Matter |
Gross r (fm) |
Effective r (fm) |
|
0 |
0.070575 |
0.0141149 |
6 |
0.0094100 |
1747.5 |
1398.0 |
||
|
1 |
Electron |
0.510999 |
0.510998918 |
0.048207445 |
12 |
0.038566 |
426.38 |
386.159 |
|
2 |
Muon |
105.658 |
105.6583715 |
17.98440366 |
13 |
6.7442 |
2.4382 |
2.0232 |
|
3 |
140.280 |
36.595 |
17 |
6.0991 |
2.6961 |
1.9928 |
||
|
4 |
826.611 |
290.167 |
22 |
24.384 |
0.67438 |
0.43765 |
||
|
5 |
Tauon |
1777.10 |
1776.82 |
763.339 |
28 |
36.206 |
0.45418 |
0.25909 |
|
6 |
4688.43 |
2320.05 |
35 |
67.668 |
0.24301 |
0.12276 |
||
|
7 |
7421.14 |
3903.50 |
43 |
81.806 |
0.20101 |
0.09528 |
||
|
8 |
18,135.9 |
10,330.60 |
52 |
150.10 |
0.10955 |
0.04715 |
Scale
A force balance was done on the simpler structure of the photon, with 4 proto-photons above a pair of gravitons to determine the size of the proto-photons. This came to LP/√3. The proto-photon contains an infra-photon in a 1s orbit paired to an infra-tachyon also in a 1s orbit. The proto-electron contains 3 charge structures which are similar in construction to the proto-photon, but are smaller in scale. These also contain an infra-photon and an infra-tachyon sharing the 1s orbits, but due to frequency locking the scale is about 10-25 as large: the proto-photon is about 4.666*10-35 m in radius, and the charge structure (or s mezzo-matter particle) is about 10-60 m. The proto-photon is bound to the graviton which has a frequency about 1.023*1043 cycles per second, while the charge structure is bound to a charge tachyon which has a frequency about 1068 cycles per second.
Frequency locking implies every time the infra-photon approaches the tachyon in the larger structure its small structure is bound to, the tachyon is right there. The simplest solution has 1 orbit of the infra-photon taking the same time as 1 of the tachyon, but solutions where 1 infra-photon orbit was 2 tachyon orbits, or more, were also examined lightly. The frequency given is for a 1:1 ratio.
Similarly, due to frequency locking, the proto-electron is smaller in radius than the proto-photon, since the charge structure has significant rest energy and is moving less than c. An assumption was made that the radius of the orbit for the 2 was proportionate to the velocity relative to c. Several different solutions were examined as to the overall nature of this structure: multiple shells, each locked to the gravitons period or a single shell with just 1 of the constituents locked to the graviton. Eventually, the latter form looked more practical.
For the photon, each proto-photon has a force balance of FG=-FC, where FG is the combined force of the 2 gravitons on the proto-photon and FC is the opposing centripetal effect. A generalized form for the centripetal effect was found for all 3 classes (tachyons, tardyons, and luxons) of FC=2EK/r,
where EK is the kinetic energy and r is the radius of orbit. The
gravitational attraction has a familiar form of 
. Here, E2 is the same as EK above, and E1 is the kinetic energy of the graviton. As the gravitons are assumed to always occupy 1s orbits in the photon (and the leptons), and the proto-photons ns orbits where n is an integer greater than 1, E2=nE1. The distance d is between the center of the graviton and the center of the proto-photon. As the graviton appears much smaller, this can be treated as the radius of the proto-photon.
For the proto-leptons, especially the proto-electron, the force balance has an additional term. The 3 proto-photons in the structure each pull outward on the proto-electron, partly offsetting the gravitational attraction. This gives FG=-FC-FQ, where FQ is the charge related term.
There is some difficulty in matching the FQ term to the others, since the 3 proto-photons have various energies and frequency of contact. As KE is much higher than RE for the proto-photons, they are treated as moving at c. 2 of the proto-photons are moving anti-parallel to the proto-electron which is moving 
. In 12 orbits of the proto-electron, each proto-photon orbits 13 times. The anti-parallel proto-photons pass the proto-electron 25 times, while the parallel proto-photon only laps it once. These 51 events have 2 different energy profiles, with the 3s proto-photons 1.5 times the energy of the 2s.
Treating the attraction of the proto-photons on the proto-electron as paralleling the attraction of the graviton, an equivalent formula 
may occur. Here d2 is the distance between the center of the proto-electron and the proto-photon while the proto-photon is adjacent. E1 is the energy of the
proto-electron and E2 is the energy of the proto-photon.
It is now time to consider probability in context. The centripetal effect is continuous. The other 2 events are periodic. About 1043 times per second the gravitons each tug inward (for all proto-matter). This averages out to the formula above, with each tug much larger, but occurring only for the instant the graviton is near. Not knowing the size of the gravitons, this “nearness” can be treated as a single point on the border of the proto-lepton inward to the center of the lepton. Similarly, the proto-photons only tug outward as they are passing the proto-leptons. This tug outward may be on the same order of magnitude as the gravitational attraction, on a time averaged basis. Unlike the graviton, the proto-photon has a significant size, somewhat larger than the proto-electron. The tug outward would occur from the time they first touch until the proto-photon has passed by. The parallel proto-photon would spend longer adjacent than the 2 anti-parallel. This may make up for its less frequent visits.
The overall formula for charge is now: 
, where each p is the probability of the photon passing close, divided by the probability of the graviton being in range. No obvious method was found for calculating these exactly. For now, taking them as 1, a calculation can be done giving d2 in terms of d. This would need to be adjusted when a better value for p can be found. As the radius of the proto-electron is less than the
proto-photon, we will substitute in re and rp for the two: d = re, d2=re+rp. Similarly, the energy pieces are all known as fractions of the energy of the electron:
(for the 2 gravitons), 
, 
, 
. From the first equation, the centripetal force on the electron balances the gravitational force on a proto-photon in the equivalent orbit: 
. The gross equation becomes: 
. Several things immediately drop out, including G and c to a much simpler:
. Multiplying through by the various denominators we get: 
.
Expanding and collecting terms: 
. Solving, there is 1 positive real solution, around re=0.710 101 956rp.
2 obvious solutions are possible with the 6 mezzo matter bits orbiting a single distance: this can be the 1s distance or the 3s. With V1s=0.710 101 956c, the rest energy is about 0.704 098 865 * total energy for the 1s. The total kinetic energy of the 6 constituents of the proto-electron are 5.043 061 13* the rest energy of the charge bit, of which there are 3 in the proto-electron, so the charge bit is 1/8.043 061 13 of the proto-electron, which is about 48.207 4451(32) KeV. The charge bit is then 5.993 668 87(40) KeV. Substituting in different values for p gives different values for all the derived attributes. Alternately, and more likely the gravitons may be synchronized to the 3s charge structure. Similarly, V3s=0.710 101 956c, and the total kinetic energy is 4 times the kinetic energy of the 3s bit (equivalent to the above where the total is 12* the kinetic energy of the 1s bit). This gives a charge bit of 10.298 490 7(6) MeV.
A third, less obvious solution has the 3 charge bits in 3 separate shells. No analytic solution was apparent, but a numeric solution provided a rest energy for the charge bit of 9.984 849 34 MeV, with an unknown uncertainty. If this is the case, there is a question as to the quantal nature of charge. The muon would have slightly more or less charge than the electron (as 4 of its mezzo orbits have negative angular momentum, and 1 has positive – adding by radius, which is about 1.8% more or less depending on which of 4s and 5s has positive orientation). This also leaves a rather fragile structure, with many pieces that can bang into their neighbors when the particle is hit by another.
Illustrations:
Typical lepton: Proto-Muon (from top) Proto-up (from top)
Vectors are perpendicular to lines representing
orbits. Red, Blue, and Green vectors are 120° apart. Grey vector (charge) is
inward or outward from page. Blue vector is 180° away from the yellow vector,
and green vector is 180° from the purple vector.